Language and representation

Lexical asymmetry

 An imbalance in the meanings of two supposedly matching words. For example, manliness is seen as strength and womanliness is seen as weakness – cry like a little girl (associated with being weak).

Semantic derogation

The negative meanings associated with certain words and how they are used to denigrate particular groups of people, these words carry negative connotations that can be used to insult people. Examples include: spastic, cripple, faggot etc.

Semantic reclamation

A process whereby a word has previously carried negative connotations can be reclaimed by the group it was used against and turned into something positive.

Pejoration

Semantics move from positive to negative, for example – gay meant happy and now it means homosexual.

Amelioration

Semantics move from negative to positive, for example – cute used to mean cunning and now it tends to mean sweet and attractive.

Semantic over representation

A fairly simple idea that just means there are many more words to describe a particular concept or group of people in their equivalent.

Lexical gaps

Are when we find no equivalents for certain terms, for example – there isn’t really a female equivalent for ‘stud’.

Negative semantic space

Suggests that the terms used to label women are attached to a negative ‘space’, they bring with them their negative connotations which can only be offset by adding male prefixes such as ‘male slut’ . Muriel Schultz’s semantic rule proposes that all words which become associated with women slide down the scale of semantics.

Marked form

Suggests deviation from the norm, for example – a male nurse.

Unmarked form

The assumed ‘norm’, something that is not limited or specified for example – a horse not a stallion or mare.

Semantic marking

When the semantic range of a word is limited or specified for example – a stallion = a male horse and a mare = a female horse.

Overt marking

Marking that takes place through suffixes or modification gender, for example ‘ess’ for females – lioness.

Covert marking

Marking that is understood, for example – in certain contexts ‘young’ is the marked and ‘old’ is the unmarked, we are asked – ‘how old are you?’ not – ‘how young are you?’

Generic terms and pronouns

Prejudice has been noted in the generic usage of certain terms, such as – ‘mankind’, taken to mean both men and women. Alternatives are – ‘humankind’ which is seen as being more inclusive.

Pronouns being used to represent both men and women, for example – ‘each student has to hand his homework in’ suggesting that males are more important than females. The use of non-gender specific pronouns such as, ‘their’ or the more awkward, ‘he/she’, is seen as being more inclusive.

Patronising and demeaning usage

‘Alright darling’, ‘cheer up, love’, these are a couple of the demeaning usages women have been subjected to by sexist men today.

Words are also used by men to objectify women, such as ‘tart’, ‘sweetie’, ‘baby’, all of which either trivialise and infantilise women or make them appear to be sweet tasting consumables, there for the pleasure of men