Language and representation

Lexical asymmetry

 An imbalance in the meanings of two supposedly matching words. For example, manliness is seen as strength and womanliness is seen as weakness – cry like a little girl (associated with being weak).

Semantic derogation

The negative meanings associated with certain words and how they are used to denigrate particular groups of people, these words carry negative connotations that can be used to insult people. Examples include: spastic, cripple, faggot etc.

Semantic reclamation

A process whereby a word has previously carried negative connotations can be reclaimed by the group it was used against and turned into something positive.

Pejoration

Semantics move from positive to negative, for example – gay meant happy and now it means homosexual.

Amelioration

Semantics move from negative to positive, for example – cute used to mean cunning and now it tends to mean sweet and attractive.

Semantic over representation

A fairly simple idea that just means there are many more words to describe a particular concept or group of people in their equivalent.

Lexical gaps

Are when we find no equivalents for certain terms, for example – there isn’t really a female equivalent for ‘stud’.

Negative semantic space

Suggests that the terms used to label women are attached to a negative ‘space’, they bring with them their negative connotations which can only be offset by adding male prefixes such as ‘male slut’ . Muriel Schultz’s semantic rule proposes that all words which become associated with women slide down the scale of semantics.

Marked form

Suggests deviation from the norm, for example – a male nurse.

Unmarked form

The assumed ‘norm’, something that is not limited or specified for example – a horse not a stallion or mare.

Semantic marking

When the semantic range of a word is limited or specified for example – a stallion = a male horse and a mare = a female horse.

Overt marking

Marking that takes place through suffixes or modification gender, for example ‘ess’ for females – lioness.

Covert marking

Marking that is understood, for example – in certain contexts ‘young’ is the marked and ‘old’ is the unmarked, we are asked – ‘how old are you?’ not – ‘how young are you?’

Generic terms and pronouns

Prejudice has been noted in the generic usage of certain terms, such as – ‘mankind’, taken to mean both men and women. Alternatives are – ‘humankind’ which is seen as being more inclusive.

Pronouns being used to represent both men and women, for example – ‘each student has to hand his homework in’ suggesting that males are more important than females. The use of non-gender specific pronouns such as, ‘their’ or the more awkward, ‘he/she’, is seen as being more inclusive.

Patronising and demeaning usage

‘Alright darling’, ‘cheer up, love’, these are a couple of the demeaning usages women have been subjected to by sexist men today.

Words are also used by men to objectify women, such as ‘tart’, ‘sweetie’, ‘baby’, all of which either trivialise and infantilise women or make them appear to be sweet tasting consumables, there for the pleasure of men

History of words (language and gender)

Spinster

1. The earliest record of the word spinster being used in a written text was in – 1362, ‘Langland Piers Plowman A. v. 130   and my wyf at Westmunstre þat wollene cloþ made, Spak to þe spinsters for to spinne hit softe.’
2. Spinster is a Dutch word.
3. The original meaning of the word – spinster, is - a woman (or, rarely, a man) who spins, esp. one who practises spinning as a regular occupation. However this meaning has changed over time, as it now has the denotation of – a woman still unmarried; esp. one beyond the usual age for marriage, an old maid.
4. The primary meaning has altered slightly; in 1380 the definition was - Appended to names of women, originally in order to denote their occupation, but subsequently (from the 17th century) as the proper legal designation of one still unmarried. In 1719, it was reformed to just simply - A woman still unmarried; esp. one beyond the usual age for marriage, an old maid. The emphasis is on relationship status and not profession, showing a semantic shift over time.
5. The spelling hasn’t changed and it’s persistently been used as a noun.

 

Bachelor

1. The earliest record of the word – bachelor used in a written text was in 1297 - R. Gloucester's Chron. 453   Syre ȝong bacheler...þow art strong & corageus.
2. The word originates from Italy.
3. The original meaning of – bachelor, is: a young knight, not old enough, or having too few vassals, to display his own banner, and who therefore followed the banner of another; a novice in arms. [On this sense was founded the conjectural etymology of bas chevalier.] This is in contrast to the most recent definition, whereby it relates to accommodation where a bachelor would stay.
4. The primary meaning has been extended upon; in 1386, the meaning was - An unmarried man (of marriageable age). Whereas, in 1694, the definition expanded to – an inexperienced person, a novice. This suggests that because the man isn’t married, therefore he lacks experience in that aspect of life.
5. There has been various different ways to spell the word, ranging from batcheler to bachilers. It’s used as a noun.

Bitch

1. The earliest record of the word – bitch used in a written text was in 1398 - J. Trevisa tr. Bartholomew de Glanville De Proprietatibus Rerum (1495) xviii. i. 742   The bytche bringeth forth blynde whelpes.
2. The word originates from – Germany.
3. The original meaning of the word – bitch is: the female of the dog. This is in contrast to the most recent definition of: A primitive form of lamp used in Alaska and Canada.
4. The primary meaning of the word – bitch, is a female dog however over time the word has changed completely to be an insult.
5. The spelling hasn’t changed and it’s persistently been used as a noun.
   
   

Bastard

1. The earliest record of the word bastard is in – 1297, R. Gloucester's Chron. 295   Of þulke blode Wyllam bastard com.
2. The word originates from – France.
3. The original meaning of the word – bastard is: One begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate or natural child. This is in contrast to the most recent definition of - Of abnormal shape or irregular (esp. unusually large) size; spec. applied.
4. The primary meaning of the word bastard is - One begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate or natural child, however over time the word has changed meaning an insult.
5. The spelling hasn’t changed and it’s persistently been used as an adjective.
   
   

Semantic derogation

Muriel Schultz (1975)

Schultz documents a process of ‘semantic derogation’ affecting sexual terms when applied to women. This means that sexual words tend to carry a heavy weight of moral opprobrium (disapproval). Sexual terms are sometimes the best arena for moral opprobrium, sexism and patriarchal/male resistance to the redefinition of sexual roles. There are no boundaries and no limits to the proliferation of sexual stories – and indeed, all activities, discourse and technologies are veritably sexualised.

Deborah Cameron (1990)

Deborah Cameron says that wherever and whenever the matter has been investigated, men and women face normative expectations about the appropriate mode of speech for their gender. Women's verbal conduct is important in many cultures; women have been instructed in the proper ways of talking just as they have been instructed in the proper ways of dressing, in the use of cosmetics, and in other “feminine” kinds of behaviour. This acceptance of a “proper” speech style, Cameron describes (in her 1995 book of the same name) as “verbal hygiene”.

Cameron does not condemn verbal hygiene, as misguided. She finds specific examples of verbal hygiene in the regulation of '"style" by editors, the teaching of English grammar in schools, politically correct language and the advice to women on how they can speak more effectively. In each case Deborah Cameron claims that verbal hygiene is a way to make sense of language, and that it also represents a symbolic attempt to impose order on the social world.

Sara mills (1995)

She researched into:

• The use of ‘he’ as a generic pronoun.

• The sexual bias of ‘man’ nouns: e.g. postman, chairman.

• Different terms to distinguish between female and male versions, often with negative connotations for the females: e.g. bachelor/spinster, master/mistress

• Terms without a female equivalent: e.g. single woman, career woman

• Offensive terms for an unattractive woman e.g. crone, bag, frump.

I discovered that there are more words for a sexually promiscuous female than a sexually promiscuous male. Words for females included: slag, slut, sket, skank, whore, hoe. Words for males includes: fuckboy, player, lad.

Words for females are all negative whereas some of the words for boys can be seen as positive. I asked around to see what other people thought and the results were the same - that there are more negative words for women than men.